What is the Style of Matters of Concern? Spinoza Lectures. Amsterdam: Van Gorcum. Mazis, Glen A. The Reversibility of Temporality and the Temporality of Reversibility. In Merleau-Ponty, Hermeneutics, and Postmodernism, eds. Thomas Busch, and Shaun Gallagher, p. Merleau-Ponty, M. Edited by Claude Lefort and translated by Alphonso Lingis. Translated by Leonard Lawlor and Heath Massey.
Translated by Donald A. London, New York: Routledge. Mondada, L. Working with Video. Visual Studies 18 1 : 58— Mondada, Lorenza. Operating Together through Videoconference. In Orders of Ordinary Action. Respecifying Sociological Knowledge, eds. Stephen Hester, and David Francis, p. Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate. Spiegelberg, Herbert.
The Phenomenological Movement. A Historical Introduction. Schnettler, and H. Young, Iris Marion. In On Female Body Experience.
Iris Marion Young, p. As an example, if you have a cup of coffee that has only a very little bit of sugar in it say one teaspoon , adding another teaspoon of sugar will make a big difference in taste.
Our tendency to perceive cost differences between products is dependent not only on the amount of money we will spend or save, but also on the amount of money saved relative to the price of the purchase. If you study Figure 5. But can subliminal stimuli events that occur below the absolute threshold and of which we are not conscious have an influence on our behaviour? A variety of research programs have found that subliminal stimuli can influence our judgments and behaviour, at least in the short term Dijksterhuis, But whether the presentation of subliminal stimuli can influence the products that we buy has been a more controversial topic in psychology.
To be sure they paid attention to the display, the students were asked to note whether the strings contained a small b. However, immediately before each of the letter strings, the researchers presented either the name of a drink that is popular in Holland Lipton Ice or a control string containing the same letters as Lipton Ice NpeicTol. These words were presented so quickly for only about one-fiftieth of a second that the participants could not see them. People cannot counterargue with, or attempt to avoid being influenced by, messages received outside awareness.
Due to fears that people may be influenced without their knowing, subliminal advertising has been banned in many countries, including Australia, Canada, Great Britain, the United States, and Russia. Charles Trappey conducted a meta-analysis in which he combined 23 leading research studies that had tested the influence of subliminal advertising on consumer choice. The results showed that subliminal advertising had a negligible effect on consumer choice.
Saegert , p. Taken together then, the evidence for the effectiveness of subliminal advertising is weak, and its effects may be limited to only some people and in only some conditions. But even if subliminal advertising is not all that effective itself, there are plenty of other indirect advertising techniques that are used and that do work.
For instance, many ads for automobiles and alcoholic beverages are subtly sexualized, which encourages the consumer to indirectly even if not subliminally associate these products with sexuality.
Another example of processing that occurs outside our awareness is seen when certain areas of the visual cortex are damaged, causing blindsight , a condition in which people are unable to consciously report on visual stimuli but nevertheless are able to accurately answer questions about what they are seeing.
When people with blindsight are asked directly what stimuli look like, or to determine whether these stimuli are present at all, they cannot do so at better than chance levels. They report that they cannot see anything. However, when they are asked more indirect questions, they are able to give correct answers. It seems that although conscious reports of the visual experiences are not possible, there is still a parallel and implicit process at work, enabling people to perceive certain aspects of the stimuli.
Dijksterhuis, A. Automaticity and the unconscious. Fiske, D. Lindzey Eds. Galanter, E. Contemporary Psychophysics. Sometimes, we are more interested in how much difference in stimuli is required to detect a difference between them. This is known as the just noticeable difference jnd or difference threshold. Unlike the absolute threshold, the difference threshold changes depending on the stimulus intensity.
As an example, imagine yourself in a very dark movie theater. If an audience member were to receive a text message on her cell phone which caused her screen to light up, chances are that many people would notice the change in illumination in the theater.
However, if the same thing happened in a brightly lit arena during a basketball game, very few people would notice. The cell phone brightness does not change, but its ability to be detected as a change in illumination varies dramatically between the two contexts. While our sensory receptors are constantly collecting information from the environment, it is ultimately how we interpret that information that affects how we interact with the world.
Perception refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. Perception involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory input.
On the other hand, how we interpret those sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts. This is called top-down processing. One way to think of this concept is that sensation is a physical process, whereas perception is psychological. Although our perceptions are built from sensations, not all sensations result in perception. This is known as sensory adaptation. Imagine entering a classroom with an old analog clock.
Upon first entering the room, you can hear the ticking of the clock; as you begin to engage in conversation with classmates or listen to your professor greet the class, you are no longer aware of the ticking. The clock is still ticking, and that information is still affecting sensory receptors of the auditory system. The fact that you no longer perceive the sound demonstrates sensory adaptation and shows that while closely associated, sensation and perception are different.
There is another factor that affects sensation and perception: attention. Attention plays a significant role in determining what is sensed versus what is perceived.
Information from the vestibular system is sent through the vestibular nerve the other division of the vestibulocochlear nerve to muscles involved in the movement of our eyes, neck, and other parts of our body. This information allows us to maintain our gaze on an object while we are in motion.
Disturbances in the vestibular system can result in issues with balance, including vertigo. Who actually enjoys having sand in their swimsuit? Somatosensation —which includes our ability to sense touch, temperature and pain—transduces physical stimuli, such as fuzzy velvet or scalding water, into electrical potentials that can be processed by the brain.
Tactile stimuli —those that are associated with texture—are transduced by special receptors in the skin called mechanoreceptors. Just like photoreceptors in the eye and auditory hair cells in the ear, these allow for the conversion of one kind of energy into a form the brain can understand.
After tactile stimuli are converted by mechanoreceptors, information is sent through the thalamus to the primary somatosensory cortex for further processing. Put simply, various areas of the skin, such as lips and fingertips, are more sensitive than others, such as shoulders or ankles. This sensitivity can be represented with the distorted proportions of the human body shown in Figure 5.
Without pain, how would we know when we are accidentally touching a hot stove, or that we should rest a strained arm after a hard workout? Records of people experiencing phantom limbs after amputations have been around for centuries Mitchell, As the name suggests, people with a phantom limb have the sensations such as itching seemingly coming from their missing limb.
A phantom limb can also involve phantom limb pain , sometimes described as the muscles of the missing limb uncomfortably clenching. There is an interesting treatment for the alleviation of phantom limb pain that works by tricking the brain, using a special mirror box to create a visual representation of the missing limb. The two most underappreciated senses can be lumped into the broad category of chemical senses. Both olfaction smell and gustation taste require the transduction of chemical stimuli into electrical potentials.
I say these senses are underappreciated because most people would give up either one of these if they were forced to give up a sense. Many of us pay a lot more for a favorite brand of food because we prefer the taste.
Clearly, we humans care about our chemical senses. Unlike any of the other senses discussed so far, the receptors involved in our perception of both smell and taste bind directly with the stimuli they transduce. Odorants in our environment, very often mixtures of them, bind with olfactory receptors found in the olfactory epithelium. The binding of odorants to receptors is thought to be similar to how a lock and key operates, with different odorants binding to different specialized receptors based on their shape.
Regardless of how odorants bind with receptors, the result is a pattern of neural activity. It is thought that our memories of these patterns of activity underlie our subjective experience of smell Shepherd, Interestingly, because olfactory receptors send projections to the brain through the cribriform plate of the skull, head trauma has the potential to cause anosmia , due to the severing of these connections.
If you are in a line of work where you constantly experience head trauma e. Taste works in a similar fashion to smell, only with receptors found in the taste buds of the tongue, called taste receptor cells.
To clarify a common misconception, taste buds are not the bumps on your tongue papillae , but are located in small divots around these bumps. These receptors also respond to chemicals from the outside environment, except these chemicals, called tastants , are contained in the foods we eat. The binding of these chemicals with taste receptor cells results in our perception of the five basic tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami savory —although some scientists argue that there are more Stewart et al.
Researchers used to think these tastes formed the basis for a map-like organization of the tongue; there was even a clever rationale for the concept, about how the back of the tongue sensed bitter so we would know to spit out poisons, and the front of the tongue sensed sweet so we could identify high-energy foods.
During the process of eating we are not limited to our sense of taste alone. While we are chewing, food odorants are forced back up to areas that contain olfactory receptors. This combination of taste and smell gives us the perception of flavor. If you have doubts about the interaction between these two senses, I encourage you to think back to consider how the flavors of your favorite foods are impacted when you have a cold; everything is pretty bland and boring, right?
Though we have spent the majority of this module covering the senses individually, our real-world experience is most often multimodal, involving combinations of our senses into one perceptual experience. This should be clear after reading the description of walking through the forest at the beginning of the module; it was the combination of senses that allowed for that experience.
Information from one sense has the potential to influence how we perceive information from another, a process called multimodal perception. Interestingly, we actually respond more strongly to multimodal stimuli compared to the sum of each single modality together, an effect called the superadditive effect of multisensory integration.
Our impressive sensory abilities allow us to experience the most enjoyable and most miserable experiences, as well as everything in between. Our eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin provide an interface for the brain to interact with the world around us.
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